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The War on Drugs is an American term commonly applied to a campaign of prohibition of drugs, military aid, and military intervention, with the stated aim being to reduce the illegal drug trade.〔Cockburn and St. Clair, 1998: Chapter 14〕 This initiative includes a set of drug policies that are intended to discourage the production, distribution, and consumption of psychoactive drugs that the participating governments and the UN have made illegal. The term was popularized by the media shortly after a press conference given on 18 June 1971, by United States President Richard Nixon—the day after publication of a special message from President Nixon to the Congress on Drug Abuse Prevention and Control—during which he declared drug abuse "public enemy number one". That message to the Congress included text about devoting more federal resources to the "prevention of new addicts, and the rehabilitation of those who are addicted", but that part did not receive the same public attention as the term "war on drugs".〔(Richard Nixoan:203 - Special Message to the Congress on Drug Abuse Prevention and Control, June 17, 1971 )〕 However, two years even prior to this, Nixon had formally declared a "war on drugs" that would be directed toward eradication, interdiction, and incarceration.〔Payan, Tony (2013). A War that Can’t Be Won. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press.〕 Today, the Drug Policy Alliance, which advocates for an end to the War on Drugs, estimates that the United States spends $51 billion annually on these initiatives.〔(【引用サイトリンク】url=http://www.drugpolicy.org/drug-war-statistics )〕 On 13 May 2009, Gil Kerlikowske—the Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP)—signaled that the Obama administration did not plan to significantly alter drug enforcement policy, but also that the administration would not use the term "War on Drugs", because Kerlikowske considers the term to be "counter-productive". ONDCP's view is that "drug addiction is a disease that can be successfully prevented and treated... making drugs more available will make it harder to keep our communities healthy and safe".〔 One of the alternatives that Kerlikowske has showcased is the drug policy of Sweden, which seeks to balance public health concerns with opposition to drug legalization. The prevalence rates for cocaine use in Sweden are barely one-fifth of those in Spain, the biggest consumer of the drug. In June 2011, a self-appointed Global Commission on Drug Policy released a critical report on the War on Drugs, declaring: "The global war on drugs has failed, with devastating consequences for individuals and societies around the world. Fifty years after the initiation of the UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, and years after President Nixon launched the US government's war on drugs, fundamental reforms in national and global drug control policies are urgently needed." The report was criticized by organizations that oppose a general legalization of drugs.〔(Global Commission on Drug Policy Offers Reckless, Vague Drug Legalization Proposal, Institute for Behavior and Health, Inc, July 12, 2011 ). (PDF).〕 ==History== (詳細はHarrison Narcotics Tax Act of 1914. The first local laws came as early as 1860.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Opium Throughout History )〕 In 1919, the United States passed the 18th Amendment, prohibiting the sale, manufacture, and transportation of alcohol, with exceptions for religious and medical use. In 1920, the United States passed the National Prohibition Act (Volstead Act), enacted to carry out the provisions in law of the 18th Amendment. The Federal Bureau of Narcotics was established in the United States Department of the Treasury by an act of 14 June 1930 (46 Stat. 585).〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Records of the Drug Enforcement Administration DEA )〕 In 1933, the federal prohibition for alcohol was repealed by passage of the 21st Amendment. In 1935, President Franklin D. Roosevelt publicly supported the adoption of the Uniform State Narcotic Drug Act. ''The New York Times'' used the headline "Roosevelt Asks Narcotic War Aid".〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=ROOSEVELT ASKS NARCOTIC WAR AID, 1935 )〕〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Letter to the World Narcotic Defense Association. March 21, 1935 )〕 In 1937, the Marijuana Transfer Tax Act was passed. Several scholars have claimed that the goal was to destroy the hemp industry,〔Earlywine, 2005: (p. 24 )〕〔Peet, 2004: (p. 55 )〕 largely as an effort of businessmen Andrew Mellon, Randolph Hearst, and the Du Pont family.〔〔 These scholars argue that with the invention of the decorticator, hemp became a very cheap substitute for the paper pulp that was used in the newspaper industry.〔 These scholars believe that Hearst felt that this was a threat to his extensive timber holdings. Mellon, United States Secretary of the Treasury and the wealthiest man in America, had invested heavily in the DuPont's new synthetic fiber, nylon, and considered its success to depend on its replacement of the traditional resource, hemp.〔 However, there were circumstances that contradict these claims. One reason for doubts about those claims is that the new decorticators did not perform fully satisfactorily in commercial production. To produce fiber from hemp was a labor-intensive process if you include harvest, transport and processing. Technological developments decreased the labor with hemp but not sufficient to eliminate this disadvantage.〔(T. Randall Fortenbery and Michael Bennett: Is Industrial Hemp Worth Further Study in the US? A Survey of the Literature, Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, University of Wisconsin – Ma7dison. July 2001 )〕〔(Was there a conspiracy to outlaw hemp because it was a threat to the DuPonts and other industrial interests? )〕 Although Nixon declared "drug abuse" to be public enemy number one in 1971, the policies that his administration implemented as part of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 were a continuation of drug prohibition policies in the U.S., which started in 1914.〔(Thirty Years of America's Drug War, a Chronology ). Frontline (U.S. TV series).〕〔(Timeline: America's War on Drugs ). 2 April 2007. NPR.〕 The Nixon Administration also repealed the federal 2–10-year mandatory minimum sentences for possession of marijuana and started federal demand reduction programs and drug-treatment programs. Robert DuPont, the "Drug czar" in the Nixon Administration, stated it would be more accurate to say that Nixon ended, rather than launched, the "war on drugs". DuPont also argued that it was the proponents of drug legalization that popularized the term "war on drugs".〔 On 27 October 1970, Congress passes the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, which, among other things, categorizes controlled substances based on their medicinal use and potential for addiction.〔 In 1971, two congressmen released an explosive report on the growing heroin epidemic among U.S. servicemen in Vietnam; ten to fifteen percent of the servicemen were addicted to heroin, and President Nixon declared drug abuse to be "public enemy number one".〔〔(WGBH educational foundation. Interview with Dr. Robert Dupoint ). Pbs.org (18 February 1970).〕 In 1973, the Drug Enforcement Administration was created to replace the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs.〔 In 1982, Vice President George H. W. Bush and his aides began pushing for the involvement of the CIA and U.S. military in drug interdiction efforts.〔Scott and Marshall, 1991: p. 2〕 The Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) was originally established by the National Narcotics Leadership Act of 1988,〔National Narcotics Leadership Act of 1988 (Anti–Drug Abuse Act of 1988), 〕 which mandated a national anti-drug media campaign for youth, which would later become the National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign.〔Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act of 1998, , , at 111 Stat. 1294〕 The director of ONDCP is commonly known as the Drug czar,〔 and it was first implemented in 1989 under President George H. W. Bush,〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=frontline: drug wars: thirty years of America's drug war )〕 and raised to cabinet-level status by Bill Clinton in 1993. These activities were subsequently funded by the Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act of 1998.〔Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act of 1998, , 〕 The Drug-Free Media Campaign Act of 1998 codified the campaign at .〔Drug-Free Media Campaign Act of 1998 (Omnibus Consolidated and Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act, 1999), , at 112 Stat. 2681-752〕 The Global Commission on Drug Policy released a report on 2 June 2011 alleging that "The War On Drugs Has Failed". The commissioned was made up of 22 self-appointed members including a number of prominent international politicians and writers. U.S. Surgeon General Regina Benjamin also released the first ever National Prevention Strategy.〔(National Prevention Strategy, June 16, 2011 ). Healthcare.gov (16 June 2011).〕 On 21 May 2012, the U.S. Government published an updated version of its Drug Policy.〔(Principles of Modern Drug Policy ). Whitehouse.gov.〕 The director of ONDCP stated simultaneously that this policy is something different from the "War on Drugs": * The U.S Government sees the policy as a "third way" approach to drug control; an approach that is based on the results of a huge investment in research from some of the world's preeminent scholars on disease of substance abuse. * The policy does not see drug legalization as the "silver bullet" solution to drug control. * It is not a policy where success is measured by the number of arrests made or prisons built.〔(Statement of the Government of the United States of America World Federation Against Drugs 3rd World Forum, May 21, 2012, Stockholm, Sweden ). Whitehouse.gov (21 September 2012).〕 At the same meeting was a declaration signed by the representatives of Italy, the Russian Federation, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States in line with this: "Our approach must be a balanced one, combining effective enforcement to restrict the supply of drugs, with efforts to reduce demand and build recovery; supporting people to live a life free of addiction".〔(Joint statement For a humane and balanced drug policy, Stockholm 20 May 2012 ). (PDF).〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「war on drugs」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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